The Second Temple Jewish Distinction between Moral and Ceremonial Law and Its Relationship with the Pauline Argument in Galatians

"First, it is only after a lengthy proof that the Mosaic law teaches the unity, omnipotence, and omnipresence of God (132-34) and a discourse on the foolishness of idolatry-ideas popular in Hellenistic philosophical thought-that Eleazar goes on to explain the reason for the more peculiarly Jewish commandments. Second, he explains these commandments as symbolic reminders of the virtues by which the people of God should seek to order their lives: justice, peace, and the contemplation of God (144-167). Again, these are virtues commonly praised in Hellenistic philosophical writing. The author of the Letter of Aristeas was clearly anxious to show that the parts of the Torah which were peculiarly Jewish were not at the center of Jewish religion and only pointed to deeper, more important, and more universally accepted ideas. Similarly, circumcision, food laws, and Sabbath keeping are conspicuously absent in some of the surviving ethical literature of Hellenistic Judaism. PseudoPhocylides, probably written by a Hellenistic Jew between 200 B. C. and A. D. 200, consists of a long list of ethical injunctions, but concentrates on those places where Hellenistic and Jewish ethics intersect. The honor of God and parents (1. 8), the execution of justice (11. 9-21), showing mercy to the poor and helpless (11.22-41), exercising moderation (11. 59-69), and avoiding such sins as greed (ll. 42-47) and sexual immorality (1. 3,11. 175-206) form the ethical center of this work. Aside from one reference to "purifications" (1. 228)-possibly an allusion to ritual washings-there is no mention of those parts of the law which are distinctively Jewish. For whatever reason the sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides were written to reconcile Jewish and Hellenistic culture, and those parts of the law considered expendable were precisely those parts which Paul considers expendable in Galatians: dietary restrictions, Sabbath and festival observances, and circumcision" (Thielman, From Plight To Solution, 55). 

The question really isn't whether some Jews, particularly Hellenists, were making the same distinctions between ritual and moral law that the apostle Paul does, but rather why they are doing it. Paul does not merely dismiss the ritual law as something one can dispose of for any reason. Instead, it is because Christ has fulfilled the ritual law because He has fulfilled all law, ritual or moral. The question from that point is what laws inherently command activity for the Israel of God to carry out that is consistent with the character of Christ in His relation to His people and the world, and what laws are merely shadows of other things.

In this regard, the Hellenists, or any Jewish persons who reject Christ, do not have a basis for dividing up the law, since God requires that it be fulfilled. Since there is no fulfillment in Christ for them, there is everything in the law to indicate that God would strike a man dead for breaking the Sabbath as much as He would for blasphemy. The similarity, therefore, is not in an arbitrary dismissal of law whenever it comes into contact with Gentiles who would have seen it as overbearing and strange, but instead the inclination that God's purpose with ceremonial law was always meant to be fulfilled through something else. For this, Judaism's answer that it is to be fulfilled merely in the doing of the moral law is rejected by the law itself. Its fulfillment must be brought to completion and found not in the community itself, but in another. This is Paul's argument.

Biblical Theology XLII: 1 Corinthians

The First Epistle to the Corinthians is written by the apostle Paul through an amanuensis named Sosthenes (1:1-2) in order to correct a false view of what Christian spirituality/maturity looks like. It is likely written in the mid to late 50's during Paul's third missionary journey while he was at Ephesus. Because the theology and ethics of 1 Corinthians are so interwoven together, I am going to combine the two in our discussion of it.

Theology and Ethics: It is clear from the letter that the Corinthians had adopted a Greek/pagan view of spirituality and had syncretized their pagan ideas concerning the mind/spirit and body with Christianity.

In the Greek/pagan view of spirituality, deep philosophy (i.e., sophia) is to be pursued since it builds up the mind, and gives direction for all of life. Paul counters this by saying that man's wisdom cannot obtain the things of God, especially the gospel. It seems foolish to them. What is necessary instead is to pursue the wisdom provided by the Spirit of God, who gives knowledge for the purpose of salvation and edification. The cross, i.e., the gospel, is what the Spirit uses to show His power over human experience and inference. Divisions based on philosophical teaching is misguided. Paul, Peter, Apollos should all be teaching the same thing if they stay on what the Spirit has revealed. If anyone teaches otherwise, he teaches man's wisdom and his works of teaching will be burned up, even though he will be saved. Christ, therefore, is not divided up, and there is no room for arrogance or lifting one Christian teacher up over another. All are servants of Christ and it is God who is doing the work through them (Chapters 1-4).

 Much of the theology of 1 Corinthians is wrapped around the spirit/body dichotomy, where the body in Greek thought is seen as irrelevant to true spirituality, as it is something that will one day be discarded. What remains is the spirit, which therefore is eternal and much more important. Paul combats this false view throughout the letter by arguing that the physical bodies of believers are a part of Christ's body and will be raised to life for eternity. He gives a robust theology of the resurrection of the body at the end of the letter reinforcing this as well. It is the physical resurrection of the body that is joined to Christ both now and in eternity that gives a completely different perspective concerning how one thinks about his or her body and what one does in the body right now.

Hence, because Christ has been physically raised as the firstfruits representing the larger crop, all who are joined to Him will also be physically raised as He was (Chapter 15). This will occur at the very end when Christ has put all other enemies at His feet. The physical resurrection will put an end to the final enemy which is physical death. If believers are still alive at that time, their bodies will be transformed from mortal to immortal, perishable to imperishable. Hence, the physical body of a believer is an eternal part of him because it is eternally connected to Christ its federal head. What belongs to Christ is redeemed with Him. Nothing is lost. Therefore, the idea that the body is less important than the spirit is not a Christian idea.

Because of their false views of spirit and body, the Corinthians have confused views about sexuality, marriage, foods, and gender when it comes to the body, as well as confused views about spirituality when it comes to their consideration of one another, particularly in worship. 

The resurrection of the physical body, and therefore, its eternal union with Christ, means that sexuality must be seen as worship to Christ and not as something to be done in disregard of God's will for it (Chapters 5-6). It means that it is not to be seen as dirty when it is within the context God has willed for it in marriage. It means that marriage, and sex within it, is not to be pursued unless it is in God's will, so it has something to say about the divorce and remarriage issue (Chapter 7). It means that gender and gender roles are very much a part of the human individual and should not be discarded as primitive or base. And it also means that all created things, like sexuality and food should be used in a true spiritual manner, i.e., in a mature Christian way for the salvation and edification of others.

What this all comes down to, according to Paul, is that Christian maturity is actually about love (Chapter 13). It is using all things to love the brethren and glorify God. Hence, it is using one's words/teachings, sexuality, gender, food, privileges, and gifts for the edification of others for the love of Christ and to the glory of God.

Hence, worship is the use of one's gifts to exalt God's truth so that the congregation is built up in the knowledge and love of Jesus Christ (i.e., edification). Gifts themselves are not a sign of spirituality/maturity (Chapters 12-14). In fact, the presence of Christ through the Holy Spirit and all of his signs and wonders is not a confirmation that the community is pleasing to God at all, as the example of Israel in the wilderness bears witness (10:1-13).

Hence, instead of looking to be puffed up in human wisdom, seeking personal satisfaction in sex and unlawful marriage in disregard of God's will and the good of the community, suing one another because one is concerned more for self than the other person and the peace of the community, distorting gender roles that provide foundational creational issues that order the community, using freedoms in Christ at the cost of one's brother, taking communion for oneself in disregard of God's will and others, and seeking spiritual gifts as a way to edify oneself instead of others are all condemned by Paul as forms of pagan religion that have nothing to do with true Christian spirituality which is wrapped up in the love of Christ and His people. If anyone does not love Christ, therefore, Paul concludes at the end of the letter, he is anathema.

It is love, therefore, that the Corinthians should be pursuing, and their bad theology and ethics that have come from secular and pagan Greek thought, and have ironically led to their immaturity, need to be abandoned if they are to love Christ and glorify God as mature Christians.

Biblical Theology XLI: Romans

The Epistle to the Romans was written by the Apostle Paul. It seeks to lay down the foundation as to why God is justified in making His kingdom, Israel, out of only some Jews and many more Gentiles, as well as argues why Paul is justified for preaching the gospel to the Gentiles, and not only to the Jews. The book is Christocentric in that it centers the identification and salvation of the true Jew on the Davidic Messianic King, Jesus and His work upon the cross. Unlike the Jewish belief that obedience to the law made one acceptable to God, it is being united to Jesus that makes one acceptable to God and the law plays a subservient role in both leading one to Christ, and displaying Christ’s character for an already justified person to pursue. The book begins and ends with Paul boldly stating that the gospel belongs to both Jews and Gentiles alike, and therefore, declares his duty to proclaim it to both, thus creating an inclusio for the book.

Theology: Paul argues that since both Jews and Gentiles are all under sin (Romans 1:18-3:20, it is by faith/allegiance to Jesus through which one is united to Him, i.e., the Messianic King of Israel that one is reconciled to God (3:21-5:21) and adopted as His sons, i.e., heirs of the new world to come. Both are justified by this faith, and both struggle with sin (Chapters 6-7) until the day of their physical glorification/resurrection/adoption (Chapter 8). Hence, it is not through the law, whether moral, civil, or ritual, that one can become acceptable to God and become His people. Instead, the good of the law is something those redeemed/justified by faith strive for in their struggle against sin and to become like Christ (i.e., sanctification) on their way to receive the full redemption of their person when their bodies (i.e., glorification) and their world are redeemed (Chapter 8). God’s righteousness is given as a gift through one’s federal unification with the Son (5:1-2, 17-19; 6:3-8). It is not earned by works, nor can it be (3:26-31).

Since God is sovereign and chooses who will be saved and who will not be saved, He chooses who will make up spiritual Israel (Chapter 9), and He has chosen to harden many ethnic Jews and graft Gentiles into it (Chapters 10-11). Hence, His promises to Israel will all come to fruition, and all Israel will be saved, through the church that is made up of some Jews and many Gentiles. 

Ethics: As the spiritual Israel of God, it is necessary to see the covenant community, made up of both Jews and Gentiles, as a single body that seeks to love one another in service to one another, pushing one another on to righteousness. Paul divides the three types of laws (moral, civil, and ritual) in the Torah in terms of how those laws now relate to spiritual Israel, the church.

The morality of the Torah, summed up in the law of love, is to be employed within the covenant community (Chapter 12; 13:8-14) by doing good to one another and refraining from evil. Ritual sacrifices are fulfilled by what they represent, i.e., the giving over oneself in mind and body to the worship of God (12:1-2).

However, because it is a spiritual nation, the civil law goes to the secular government under which Christians are placed (13:1-7), since the church is spiritual Israel and is not, therefore, the means through which God enacts physical/civil punishment in the world. 

The ritual law that marked ethnic Jews has been fulfilled in Christ and are not binding on Christians. Hence, Jewish and Gentile Christians should not judge one another when it comes to the eating of certain foods or drink, the celebration of certain holy days, etc. (Chapters 14-15).

Paul sums up the book by arguing that he has preached the gospel to the Gentiles for the very reason that they have been saved by God as Israel, and since the Gentiles have partaken in the spiritual blessings of the Jews, they ought to share material blessings with them. God’s people ought to pray and contribute whatever they can to make sure God’s Israel grows in number and is sustained.

Subjectivism as the Enslavement of the Masses

Moral restraint is either internal or external. The internal is provided by one's worldview. What this means is that if a worldview that leads to subjectivism in moral restraint is believed by an individual or the masses, only the external restraints remain. This is why, in our society where pluralism is promoted via the means of subjectivism, laws must increase. Force is the only way to restrain the masses, and therefore, laws must be made for even moral conduct eventually. Otherwise, the logical conclusion of the worldview espoused is that the subjective preferences are infringed upon by others who do not provide the same boundaries to the "other" that the other has set for themselves. Hence, power is to be sought above all things, as whoever has the power is god, and whoever is god gets to impose his subjective morality on the masses by force. This is the only avenue left for a culture that has fully embraced any worldview that does lend itself to an internal moral restraint.

The Exclusive Restored Kingdom

One of the things that helps us see the true teaching of Jesus concerning who should receive covenant resources is Luke-Acts. Luke presents the teaching of Jesus to His covenant community concerning what the restored Israel/the kingdom of God looks like in the here and now; and Acts shows us the covenant community that follows what Jesus taught.

When questioning whether Christ was commanding the church to give to the general community or to the covenant community according to Luke, the clear answer is that He was commanding Christians to give to other Christians because the true Christians fulfill this in the Book of Acts.They are not giving to society in general, but taking care of their own.

Biblical Theology XL: Acts

The Acts of the Apostles is the second volume in a two-volume set written by Luke to the government official Theophilus (1:1-2). Although the works are anonymous, the internal evidence that presents the author as a companion of Paul on some of his missionary trips, and external evidence that identifies Luke as the author via an early undisputed tradition causes us to name Luke as its author. The word praxeis "acts" depicts a type of genre known in antiquity that records the great feats of men. Even though this is the title given to the book later, many scholars note that Luke might have called it something more along the lines of the "Acts of the Holy Spirit," or "The Continued Acts of Jesus Christ through His Church." Acts may be an apologetic for Christianity, arguing that it should be afforded the protected status that Judaism has, since it is the fulfillment of the Old Testament scriptures. There are various accounts within the book that warn government officials from having no fear of God and mistreating Christians (5:35-39; 12:21-23; 22:24-29). On the other hand, Luke argues that Christianity rejects the ritual laws of Old Testament as being normative for all Christians, or having anything to do with actual piety or acceptance by God (Acts 10; 15; 21:17-22:9). Hence, Christians are a Jewish sect, but not one where ritual purity laws cause them to withdraw from society, unless the participation in that society is idolatrous or immoral. When among Jews, the apostles still practice the ritual laws (21:17-26). As such, Christianity is not a threat that would fragment the empire. They are respectful of human authority when it does not conflict with God and they take care of their own. 

This may indicate that the book is written at a time of persecution, looming or in motion. If Luke is quoting Josephus' Antiquities, also a Jewish apologetic seeking to legitimize Judaism to Rome (see Chapter 12 or 21:38 for example), then the book would likely be dated at its earliest to the time of Domitian in the mid 90's. The work is quoted by Justin Martyr and discussed by Irenaeus in the mid second century, and therefore, cannot have an origin beyond that point. Instead, as it seems accepted by the church and established as Scripture so early on, in light of the early church's criteria for accepting only books written by apostles or under apostolic discipleship, it is likely that the dating of the book should be placed in the first century during the time of Domitian or Nerva. If Josephus, however, is using Luke (or common historical sources between them) instead, then it is possible that the work is written earlier. The detailed description of the sack of Jerusalem in Luke evidences a date beyond A.D. 70, and the fact that persecution is either in motion or at the doorstep indicates a date between 85-100, usually marked at the end of the apostolic era. The book played a prominent role in the church's liturgy and Easter celebrations later on.

Theology: The theological purpose of Acts is found in its opening and closing chapters. As Christ is about to ascend, the apostles ask Him, “Lord, are you at this time going to restore the kingdom to Israel?” (1:6). He tells them that it is not for them to know the times the Father has set, but through the power of the Holy Spirit, they will be His witnesses in Jerusalem, Samaria, and to the ends of the earth, i.e., to all nations/Gentiles (v. 8). Luke, therefore, will argue that God is restoring Israel, not solely, or even predominantly, through ethnic Israel, but rather through the church that will be made up of all sorts of Christians from Jewish believers to Samaritan believers to Gentile believers, as well as all sorts of classes of people, from the marginalized to government officials who hold great power. This restored kingdom will begin by collecting all of these people by the power of the Holy Spirit who is given to the apostles and to all who believe the gospel through them (15:16-18). This is why in Chapter 1 an immediate discussion arises about the identity of the twelfth disciple, since Judas is no longer with them. Luke will argue that their choice was not inspired by the Holy Spirit, but rather as his work unfolds, Paul will be the twelfth who Christ chooses and commissions Himself (which is the qualification of being an “apostle of/from Christ” anyway). Hence, 12 apostles will stand as judge over the restored Israel that is united to Jesus, the Messianic King God has designated to rule over Israel and the whole world.

Those who are saved, therefore, are not those who are marked by Jewish ritual law, i.e., the practicing of the old covenant wineskins, like circumcision, but rather by denouncing the religions and immoral practices of this world as a result of putting one’s allegiance in Christ through repentance and faith (Acts 15). 

Numerous accounts of Israel’s history in terms of what God has done, as well as ethnic Israel’s rebellion against God’s salvation, are recorded throughout the Book of Acts (e.g., Chapter 3; Chapter 7; 13:13-41). This exists to show that God’s work has always been both received by a few in ethnic Israel and resisted by the majority (7:51-53; 13:44-52; 28:23-24). Hence, God has taken His kingdom to the rest of the world. In fact, Luke ends his book by Paul’s conclusion from Isaiah: “‘Go to this people and say: “Hearing you will hear, and shall not understand; And seeing you will see, and not perceive; For the hearts of this people have grown dull. Their ears are hard of hearing, And their eyes they have closed, Lest they should see with their eyes and hear with their ears, Lest they should understand with their hearts and turn, So that I should heal them.”  “Therefore let it be known to you that the salvation of God has been sent to the Gentiles, and they will hear it!” (28:26-28, see also 13:46).

Ethics: The description of Christian practice is not merely meant to be regulated to descriptive texts that are not instructive for Christians today. Instead, they are meant to show how the early church fulfilled the commands and teachings of Christ in Luke’s Gospel. Luke’s Gospel taught that true members of the covenant community will take care of one another financially and seek out the marginalized and not just the powerful within the covenant community. Hence, in Acts, Christians are continually identified as those who adhere to teachings of the apostles of Christ and who make sure that no one among them has any need. In other words, the prescriptive texts are in Luke’s Gospel. The descriptive texts that show the church’s obedience to Christ are in Acts. They serve as examples for all Christians throughout time that this is what Christ demands of His kingdom people in the new restored Israel. 

As mentioned before, the Holy Spirit plays a powerful role in gathering Christ’s new Israel together from Jerusalem, Samaria, and from the ends of the earth via the preaching of the gospel. This is signified by their speaking in tongues when they are saved, not because speaking in tongues at one’s conversion is normative, but because Luke records God’s judgment upon Israel for delivering up the Messiah to death and rejecting God’s salvation. Hence, it is a sign of judgment upon ethnic Israel, and this causes a remnant to repent, but signifies the rebellion of the majority and the impending judgment that God is about to solidify in His rejection of them.

Biblical Theology XXXIX: John

John's Gospel is unique in that it is a theological presentation of Christ and His work that does not use the Synoptics as a foundation. John's purpose is "so that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in His name" (20:21). John's Gospel has many layers to it. He frames Jesus' ministry by using the three sacraments that represent the three aspects of salvation in the order in which they occur to believers: baptism that represents regeneration/justification, communion that represents sanctification via the cross, and marriage that represents glorification/consummation. Throughout all of them, the word/truth and the Spirit as the means of creation play a prominent role in terms of what makes up the teaching of the book.

Theology: Jesus is God the Son who has become incarnate in order to make God known (1:14, 18). Knowing God and Jesus Christ is eternal life itself (17:3), so the goal of the incarnation is salvation via knowing God (17:25-26). John uses language from Genesis 1 in his prologue because he wishes to argue that Jesus is the means through which God creates life. The Son is called the logos "word" because John wishes to present Him, His work, and His teaching, as the means by which God creates the world and His people. It is through the Person of the Son, the work of the Son, and the words of the Son that God draws His people who He causes to be born again and to be given life. The Spirit applies the word, as He does in creation, and brings about light and life. So the picture emerges that the Father initiates by giving the Word, and the Word is applied by the Spirit to an individual who is then brought to life by this divine activity. Hence, there is a Trinitarian fellowship that brings about the salvation of God's people by regenerating, sanctifying, and resurrecting them to eternal fellowship with the Triune God, which is why Jesus states in the Gospel, "This is the work of God: that you believe in the One He has sent" (6:29).

There is no distinction between God's word and the Word, as it has often been said. In fact, the entire point is that the Logos/Word is expressed in both His words and those in the Old Testament, so that to abide in Him is to abide in His words (15:7). All of the Old Testament Scripture speaks of the Son (5:37-40) and the Son's words are the Father's words that reflect the mind and Person of the Father (3:34; 8:26-28). There is, therefore, no separation of God, His work, and His words. To believe in God is to believe in Him, His work and His words all together.


Jesus is one with the God of the Old Testament (John 1:1; 10:30). His Father is the God of the Old Testament, as evidenced by His confirmation of the Old Testament, Moses, Abraham, and their God being the true God throughout the Gospel. He is YHWH of the Old Testament (8:58-59). This is an important point that John is making because the Gnostics denied that the God of the Old Testament was the Father of the Son. They would prefer a different God than that of the Old Testament be the Father of the Son, and that the Son break from the Old Testament rather than affirm it as He does (7:19; 10:35). John states that there is only one true God (17:3), and the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are that one God (1:1; 5:18; 10:30-33; 15:26).

God chooses some but not others to give to the Son (6:44; 10:26-27). Those who do not come to Him do not do so because they are not drawn by the Father, and therefore, do not belong to the Son. Hence, Jesus only prays for those who the Father gives Him, but not for the rest of the world (17:9).

The world in John both represents the whole pool from which His people are drawn and the wicked world in rebellion toward God. It does not always mean everyone in the world, but rather that His people are made up from every part of the world, otherwise, a great contradiction exists between texts like John 3:16 and John 17:9. The understanding of world in a general, but not specific and unlimited sense, is consistent with Johannine theology in general. God's people are not the world, but they represent the world in that they are drawn from every nation, tribe, and language group.

Hence, the word "life," along with "light/word/words/truth" and "Spirit" are presented throughout the Gospel because John wishes to argue that only in Jesus, His work, and His words does God bring anyone to life. In Him, there is life. Outside of Him, there is nothing but wrath, darkness, and death.

At the center of this word is the gospel of Jesus Christ, who draws all to Himself by being lifted up (12:32-33) and will bring healing to all who trust in His work (3:14-17). Likewise, the resurrection plays a prominent role in the Gospel as that which is found only through the Word/Christ as the one who is resurrected from the dead, and therefore, identified as the resurrection itself (11:25; 14:19), given to all who are given by the Father to Him and therefore come to Him  (6:37-40, 44-47).

The Word/word is used to shed light on every person by the Holy Spirit, who is called the Spirit of Truth. With Christ's words, He convicts the world concerning its sin and error. Those who wish to remain in sin do so because they love the darkness/the lies of the wicked world, rather than the light/the truth of God because lies give them the ability to live in sin (3:19-21).

What emerges in John, therefore, is a theology of fellowship with the Triune God and love of His people through the worship of Spirit and truth that then gives life to all who abide in the Son and His words.

Ethics: Since it is only through the Son's work and words that God the Father brings His people to life, it is only those who remain united to His Son via believing/obeying Him that this salvation will be applied by the Spirit (15:1-7). This also means that those who shepherd Christ's sheep must do the work of ministry by feeding them word and sacrament (21:15-17), which is the food and drink that satisfies forever (4:13-14, 31-34; 6:30-35). It also means that only those who abide in Christ and His word will bear much fruit (15:2, 4, 8).

Hence, to worship God is to worship Him through the Spirit and truth, since this is the means by which He creates life in His people (4:24).

Since it is the Son who the Father loves, it is those who obey the Son who the Father loves (3:35-36; 5:20; 14:23; 17:22-24). Hence, anyone He loves He draws and unites them to the Son (6:37-40; 44-47; 17:6, 9). Federal headship is strongly at play in the Gospel. God gives life to those in the Son because that is the Son's reward, but the wrath of God abides on everyone else (3:36). If one, therefore, believes, it is because God has designated him to be His, is drawing him, and has caused him to be born again/raised to a life that creates more life, a life of creational activity as the fruit of being in Christ/the Word and enlivened by the Spirit (7:38-39). John wishes to argue, then, that those born of God are not born by anyone else's will, but God's. Not even their own will has led them to being adopted as sons in the Son.

The fruit is obedience to Christ's commands in loving God and fellow Christians in the truth. It is this love for one another that identifies Christians as Christ's disciples (13:34-35; 15:12, 17. Hence, the Father loves the Son, and therefore, all who are in the Son, so to love the Son is to love those who are in the Son as well. Hence, Christians are to love other Christians who are in the Son as evidence that they love the Son and prove that they are, therefore, the disciples of the Son.